Divya Read online

  YASHPAL

  Divya

  Translated from the Hindi by

  ANAND

  Foreword by

  NAMITA SINGH

  PENGUIN BOOKS

  Contents

  About the Author

  Dedication

  Foreword

  Preface

  The Festival of Spring

  The Palace of the Chief Justice

  Prestha

  Acharya Pravardhan

  Self-surrender

  The Harsh Reality

  Grandsire Chief Justice

  Dara

  Anshumala

  Sagal

  Prithusen and Rudradhir

  Mallika

  Divya

  Translator’s Note

  Copyright Page

  PENGUIN BOOKS

  DIVYA

  YASHPAL (1903–1976) began to write while serving a life sentence for his participation, as a comrade of Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad, in the armed struggle for India’s independence. What he wrote formed his first collection of short stories, Pinjare ki Udan, published in 1938. After his release Yashpal dazzled Hindi readers with the political journal, Viplava, which he founded and published with the help of Prakashvati, a revolutionary, whom he later married in prison. He wrote more than fifty books including collections of short stories, novels, essays, a play and memoirs of his revolutionary days.

  Yashpal died in 1976 while writing the fourth volume of his reminiscences.

  ANAND has translated Yashpal’s novels and short stories into English and French. He has also translated the works of Alice Munro, Mordecia Richler and Hugh McLennan into Hindi. He lives in North America.

  NAMITA SINGH is the editor of the leading Hindi literary magazine, Vartaman Sahitya. She is the author of seven short story collections and one novel. Her stories have been translated into English, Urdu and other regional languages. She has also edited a book on historical, cultural and feminist readings of Divya.

  To you

  In whose heart the glow of love

  has never been dimmed by unremitting

  suffering and hardship …

  Foreword

  ONE OF THE REASONS YASHPAL STANDS OUT FROM HIS contemporaries is that he is a writer of ideological conflicts. His social commitment and objectivity influence his works very apparently and provide an ideological base to Hindi fiction. Most of his novels either have a political background or his characters are politically conscious and active. Dada Comrade, Geeta, Manushya Ke Roop, Deshdrohi, Meri Teri Uski Baat and his most acclaimed novel, Jhootha Sach, which ranks among world classics, all have the socio-politically charged pre-independent India as a backdrop.

  Yashpal witnessed India’s freedom struggle and the county’s partition thereafter. He was a part of an extremist organization and worked with great revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad; he was even imprisoned for a long period, due to his anti-British activities. It was in prison that he started to write and later decided to make writing a full-time career. Jhootha Sach is a comprehensive account of Partition and the great human tragedy that followed in its aftermath. It is a saga of love and hate, political ambitions and the pressure of society and, above all, the suffering of the common masses, be they Hindu or Muslim.

  Women are another focus in Yashpal’s novels as well as stories. In his novels Divya, Amita, Apsara ka Shap, Dada Comrade, Geeta, Jhootha Sach and his last one, Meri Teri Uski Baat, women play an important role. His women characters are not passive but energetic and conscious about their identity and dignity as human beings. Both Dada Comrade, Yashpal’s first novel and Divya, published in 1945, are women oriented. So contemporary are the themes and issues addressed in these books that though published before Independence and set in completely different times, they hold true even today.

  Divya is set in the first century BC. Though the novel has a historical background, Divya is not a historical character but represents a woman of the era who is in quest of her identity, her desire to be accepted in society on equal terms—as a human being.

  Yashpal raises basic questions of woman’s empowerment in a society segregated by caste and colour (varna). He goes back in time, delving deep into history to trace the roots of the oppression of women. History, for him, is not merely a repertory of past events. It provides an insight into the present and allows us to visualize, even prepare for, changes in the future. For any society, logical analysis and an evaluation of history are essential for its polity. Distortion of history by parties or people who have vested interests often becomes a tool for power and ultimately strengthens the divisive forces, especially in a multicultural, pluralistic society.

  When Yashpal started writing, it was a time of great turmoil. In the preface to Divya, he says, ‘History is not a matter of belief, but of analysis.’ Belief expands into faith and faith into blind adoration. History is important because it gives knowledge of the process of development of human civilization so that one can analyse the present composition of society and indicate the future course of development. From a historical perspective, the life portrait of Divya throws light on the socio-political structure of India at the time. It also depicts the plight of women, their social and religious bondage, and their struggle for independence.

  In Indian literature, ideological discussions on women-related issues started taking place in the early twentieth century, but murmurs could be heard even in the period known as the Indian Renaissance. The impact of reform movement during the Indian struggle for freedom was significant on various social groups. There are diverse images of this period. On one side, the oppressed working classes, artisans and peasants were opposing British exploitation; on the other, revolutionary groups were fighting for independence. In addition, the leaders of the reform movement were fighting against inhuman Hindu customs like sati and child marriage. The Brahmo Samaj of Bengal and its leaders Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshav Chandra Sen among others, worked relentlessly and succeeded, with the help of British governance, in enforcing laws, banning sati and raising the age of consent. After much work, the law allowing widow remarriage was also enforced. These were steps to ameliorate the agony and misery of Indian women. Orthodox upholders of religion vehemently opposed these actions. A section of the educated public and those who were enlightened or sensitive also resisted these reforms because they considered them to be British interference in the traditions and culture of India. These reform movements all over the country also raised voices in support of female education, supported the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act and opposed child marriage.

  The national freedom movement was not only for the end of British rule. It also called for women’s liberation and the upliftment of untouchables and dalits who were denied basic human rights by the caste-ridden Hindu society. The growth of Western education was creating an atmosphere of enlightenment among the emerging middle class and people were getting acquainted with terms like equality, freedom, fraternity and democracy. Mahatma Gandhi had emphatically declared that a freedom which does not carry the participation of half its population should not be contemplated. It was due to Gandhi’s charismatic influence that a large number of womenfolk came out of their confinement and participated in the various phases of the freedom movement. The change in attitude was visible. Contemporary newspapers and magazines were highlighting women’s issues. They were showing concern about the miserable condition of widows and the repercussions of child marriage. Some of the magazines had women editors and others had regular women contributors writing on various gender-related subjects.

  In the south the task to educate the downtrodden and girl children was initiated by Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitri Phule. Later, it was taken over by Ambedkar who introduced an aggressive socio-poli
tical agenda for the emancipation of untouchables. In Maharashtra, Mahadev Govind Ranade and his associates also made efforts for women’s education through a social movement called Prarthna Samaj, which supported widow remarriage while opposing child marriage. Similarly, Sheikh Abdullah was a pioneer in establishing the Female Education Association in Aligarh. Through his efforts, veiled Muslim girls came out to attend the school started by him in 1905, which is now a part of the renowned Aligarh Muslim University and a centre for Muslim girls’ education. So, it was the beginning of the twentieth century when gender issues became a focus and the meaning of equality, self respect and self-sufficiency were introduced.

  Yashpal entered the world of literature during this time of great upheaval. Before he wrote his first novel, his contemporary, another renowned Hindi writer, Jainendra, wrote Sunita. The novel revolves around the protagonist Sunita who, obeying the dictates of her husband, undresses and offers herself to his best friend who is supposedly a revolutionary and is in a state of depression. Jainendra set out to create a bold image of a new Indian woman, but without a deep understanding of social realities, the end result seemed absurd. In the early fifties, another famous novel, Nadi ke Dweep, written by the acclaimed writer, Agyeya, was published. It created a storm because it presented a totally new image of the empowered modern woman. Here too the story revolves around a female protagonist, Rekha, who is quite eccentric and individualistic. She is married but offers herself to her beloved Bhuvan. Later, separated from her husband, she declines to marry her lover because she does not want to lose her independence and freedom again. She becomes averse to the role of a wife. This was yet another image of the liberated woman.

  Yashpal tries to find a meaningful reading of women’s emancipation in Divya. He visits history to trace the ancient social order. The questions that arise are whether the history of human civilization is one of women’s subjugation. Are the roots of women slavery found in the history of religion and culture? With the discovery of agriculture, the primitive communalistic society started transforming into an organized social system. The growth of private property was a consequence of surplus agricultural produce. Thus emerged, on the ruins of an egalitarian society, the system of monarchy.

  In the meantime, the greed for hoarding the surplus grew so much so that it demanded better methods of agriculture. Now the collective ownership of land became impossible, and the concept of private property was ultimately accepted. This new situation demanded free labour which came in the form of slaves. It was the beginning of a new chapter in history.

  With these developments was born the consciousness of the difference between the sexes, and eventually the custom of pairing was established and accepted. Domestic affairs became the responsibility of women. The practice of hoarding and the system of private property gave rise to slavery. At the same time, women were given a new place and confined within the boundaries of four walls. As the feudal system became stronger, not only the land, but slaves and women also became part of the private property of men. A new caste-based society began to be formed, in which four varnas, depending on the nature of the profession, became the four castes that could not be changed. The caste or profession became hereditary. This was supported by the Upanishads, and stringent social laws were framed against slaves and women in various Samhitas. This Brahminical social order was convenient for the upper crust of the society. The Puranas, Upanishads and Samhitas defended the varna system, slavery and upper-class tyranny as absolute. This caste-based social order is what is responsible for inequality, injustice and inhuman conditions of the Sudras and subjugation of women in Hindu society.

  Yashpal peruses history to trace the roots of slavery in order to offer some solution. He succeeds, with beauty of language and craft, in Divya.

  The first century BC was the period in Indian history when Buddhism was confronting the old Brahminical social order and was being widely accepted by a large section of the masses. It did not intend to disturb the monarchical system of state polity and therefore became the religion of a number of independent states. This was also a time of various socio-political conflicts. Reincarnation stories were created by the followers of Gautama Buddha through a series of Jataka tales to glorify him. The idea of rebirth in Brahminical philosophy had been rejected by the Buddha, but after his death his followers preached the same beliefs. The Greek emperor, Alexander, invaded India during the time of Chandragupta Maurya and these attacks continued up to 200 BC. A considerably large area in the north-west region remained under these Indo-Greek rulers for about two hundred years. Some of them embraced Buddhism and some were also attracted towards Vaishnavism and the Krishna cult because, when compared to the Brahminical Hindu order, these were more liberal and social in nature. Buddhism advocated an egalitarian social order and rejected the theory of dividing human beings on the basis of birth and heredity. It was a path of salvation for the oppressed and downtrodden. Buddhist philosophy delivered a message of love, equality and fraternity. Thus it was also a period of serious conflict between the supporters of the Brahminical order and the followers of Buddhism. There was great discontent among the Brahmins and Kshatriyas belonging to the nobility and they wasted no opportunity in attacking Buddhism and its followers. The last king of the Maurya dynasty was assassinated by his Brahmin chief commander Pushya Mitra Shung, who ultimately made all efforts to wipe out the Buddhist monks and re-establish the Brahminical social order of varnashram. Yashpal uses these incidents from history to construct the foundation of his narrative, voicing contemporary concerns in a historical setting.

  What was the status of women during all these conflicts? The Brahminical social order refers to Hindu scriptures to establish that a woman must remain veiled and that her place is within four walls. She is ruled by her master, who may be her father, husband, son or anybody else, and can never be independent. She may be called Rajmata, Queen Mother, or Kuldevi, Divine Goddess, but cannot enjoy her freedom or be treated equal to the man in actual practice.

  Buddhism revolutionized Indian society as it rejected the supremacy of a certain class and opposed the varnashram system which was based upon unequal social laws. However, it does not accept the independent status of woman. Buddhist philosophy says, ‘Brahmin not by birth but by his deeds,’ but accepts that a woman must have a guardian in a father, husband, son, or, in the case of a slave, her master, whom she belongs to. In fact Buddhism did not touch the basic structure of the feudal social system and could not give any revolutionary verdict regarding the status of women or slaves. The same phenomenon occurs in the medieval period. The Mughals never intended to disturb the basic social structure of Hindu society and thus the plight of women and slaves remained unchanged.

  Divya deals with all these aspects. Yashpal tries to remind us that in the feudal system no religion is liberal and friendly towards women. In his novel he investigates what can be an ideal or healthy relationship between a man and woman. He creates the character of Marish to explore this. Marish seems to be a bit bohemian in his behaviour but he is very serious about his outlook towards life and society. He is a follower of the Charvak school of thought. He rejects the idea of ‘another world after death’ which forms the very base of Hindu religion. He is impressed by some tenets of Buddhism but opposes the philosophy of Nirvana or renunciation. Buddhism says that monarchy, social tyranny, slavery, inequality all are temporary and salvation of the soul is the attainment of a changeless state of eternal rest. After Buddha, his followers introduced the philosophy of reincarnation, a typical Brahminical thought that was vehemently opposed by Gautama Buddha in his lifetime. Marish opposes this too. Primitive Indian materialists, known as Charvaks, who came before Buddha, believed in the sanctity of human life and its progress. They said that life evolved from an inanimate substance and there was no other world after death because matter is the ultimate reality. Marish supports the philosophy of Lokayata (religion of the common masses). The feudal social system was totally male dominated; a woman ha
d no space of her own. But Marish believes that man and woman are both integral parts of a unit. Love and respect for each other is the only way for a meaningful union. It seems that Yashpal puts his own philosophy and opinions into the words of Marish. He wants to establish the dignity of human life above all else. A religion that makes human life beautiful and distinguished is the best religion.

  Another important question raised by Yashpal in this novel is the perception of a woman’s independence. There is a misconception that a prostitute is a liberated woman. Being mistress of her body and soul, she is an independent entity. Alas, it is not so simple.

  It is true that, in ancient history, prostitution was an integral part of the feudal system and operated under state patronage. Prostitutes were well-connected with the royalty and upper strata of society; they were respected by them. Honours and titles were conferred upon them by the state. A part of their wealth went to the state revenue. Their lifestyle was opulent, and they led independent lives. But the question still arises, whether a prostitute, irrespective of the high-profile life she leads, is an independent, liberated woman. It is true that when compared to an ordinary woman, who is confined within the four walls of her house, she is much better off. She is free to take decisions on her own because she is economically independent. In spite of these privileges, she is not a liberated woman. She is not really a mistress of her own body. Prostitution is supposed to be the oldest profession in the world. It is an entity of the market, and the market has its own rules and regulations. If a woman is a commodity then she cannot refuse a buyer. Hence it is a false belief that if a woman is mistress of her own body she becomes the mistress of her destiny as well. This thought-provoking discussion is beautifully woven into Divya.

  Yashpal also points out in this novel that it is very difficult for a low-caste individual to survive in the Brahminical social order, no matter how virtuous he is. Even if he is leading a fabulous life he cannot get respect and honour. Society can never forget his lineage. Prithusen excels in martial arts and is appointed chief commander of the royal army. His father is a wealthy trader and very close to the king. Even then his lineage is never forgotten by the aristocratic society of Sagal. He is hated by them and is called daas putra (son of a slave). It has been a unique feature of Indian polity that people never forget caste—even of their rulers. Any religion which is not judicious, cannot defend the interests of the masses and cannot make the majority of the people happy, is not worthy to be worshipped.